A separate publication has been devoted to the issue of game mammal identification in the Seltaman area (Whitehead 1995). I will briefly recap certain of those points here preliminary to listing and updating mammal identifications.
I did not go the field to study the local fauna and had made no intelligent plans for obtaining specimens. But I was not in residence for too very long before it began to dawn on me that it might be important to know something about the animals that Seltaman spent so much time discussing, hunting, sharing, and tabooing. At this point I was brought up against an impasse frequently encountered by anthropologists in New Guinea: the difficulty of identifying the game mammals. Birds figure into the story too, but they weren't so hard to determine. Most are creatures of daylight and can be managed with a good pair of binoculars, a local guide, a field manual (and diligence), and these I eventually resorted to. But even under the best of conditions the mammals are daunting. An assortment of mouse- to raccoon-sized marsupials and rodents, most are nocturnal and cryptic in their habits. They spend their days sleeping in high tree holes or well-concealed burrows and their nights hidden in the foliage; one does not casually observe them in the wild. For most anthropologists the arduousness of bush travel and bivouacking (particularly at night) and the amount of time that would be consumed in amassing a personal collection of local species rules out the mount-your-own expedition approach, while enlistment of local hunters to bring one the specimens requires instituting a well-thought-out program at the beginning of one's field stay (if a reasonably extensive collection is to be obtained) (1) and may bring one up against the etiquette problems that I encountered.
When I put out a call for killed game so that I could photograph the different types and got no response, and when I then followed this with the promise of a financial reward and still got no response, I had my first lesson in the depths of the Seltaman sharing etiquette. In the Seltaman world showing me a captured animal was tantamount to promising me a share of it, my protests notwithstanding. While certain of my Seltaman friends were willing to share with me and regularly did so, the idea of having to wake me in the middle of the night for photography purposes with the risk of waking neighboring households in the bargain proved too great an inhibition, even for them. Adding to the difficulty, many game items are cooked shortly after capture at distant bush sites, so that often specimens arrive back at the village in already unidentifiable form. (2) Paradoxically, I often got a share--a cooked part--without getting a glimpse. All in all, both visits to Papua New Guinea combined, I was able to see only ten nuk types of the nearly fifty that Seltaman name.
The identification crisis began to lift just after my first visit, when I returned to the United States and discovered the newly published Mammals of New Guinea, a virtually complete pictorial guide to the New Guinea fauna put together by zoologist Timothy Flannery (1990). Working with Flannery's pictures and accounts, Seltaman descriptions, and the specimen-based identifications that earlier anthropologists researching other Mountain Ok-speaking groups had been able to obtain (Morren 1989; Hyndman 1984), I began to evolve a tentative portrait of the Seltaman game repertory. Many of my guesses would later prove to be on target. In 1993 I returned to the Seltaman carrying Flannery's first edition with me and began a long photo-assisted interview (lasting for two months) with the Seltaman. In the end, except for creatures falling into the small and very small realm, I was able to specify the entire game repertory as to generic type ("bandicoot," "ringtail," etc.) and size; and, with most of the common and/or distinctive creatures, to arrive at fair certainty as to the species identity. This initial set of identifications was published in Pacific Studies under the title "Identifying Game with the Aid of Pictures in Papua New Guinea" (Whitehead 1995). Two uncertain giant rat identifications, those for somin and wares, were clarified by specimen evidence obtained after the publication of this article, and their identifications here will be discrepant with their guessed identifications in Whitehead 1995. In addition, the changes in terminology, addition of new species, and other new information appearing in Flannery's second edition of Mammals of New Guinea (Flannery 1955) will be reflected, where relevant, in my updated list.
I will not tax the reader with any extensive discussion of the animal taxonomy. Thankfully, it was relatively unhierarchized. There was the life form term nuk (roughly "furry animal") and the names for specific types, with very little in between. A few of the names encompassed more than one biological species, but in all such cases the encompassed types were very closely related and of comparable size. In what will seem an oddity to Westerners but is quite common in New Guinea (see Whitehead 1994), a few of the terms split apart a single species by gender when there was marked sexual dimorphism in observable features, and one trio of terms seems to be splitting apart the highly variable spotted cuscus by common pelage variants. These have been indicated in the following section.
Kitem: The Silky Cuscus (Phalanger sericeus). Killed specimens and a captured live specimen were seen in the field.
Sop: The Painted Ringtail (Pseudochirulus forbesi). Killed specimens were seen in the field.
Kwemnok, kwiam, koyam: The Ground Cuscus (Phalanger gymnotis).
Kayang: The Coppery Ringtail (Pseudochirops cupreus). One killed specimen seen in the field.
Dafaam: The Plush-coated Ringtail (Pseudochirops corinnae).
Banepsa and arukiok: The Lowland Ringtail (Pseudochirulus canescens), male and female.
Ngarem, ngerem, nerem: Stein's cuscus (Phalanger vestitus). A killed specimen was seen in the field.
Arik and deim: The Northern Common Cuscus (Phalanger orientalis), female and male. A killed specimen was seen in the field and a jaw specimen was identified in 1996 (Menzies, pers. comm., 1996).
Ngorim, nuk masem: The Mountain Cuscus (Phalanger carmelitae) and/or the Telefomin Cuscus (P. matanim).
Sarip, dionim, taban: The Common Spotted Cuscus (Spilocuscus maculatus) and the Black-spotted Cuscus (Spilocuscus rufoniger) were both nominated as sarip, with dionim and taban offered as alternate names. The names may, for some speakers, distinguish pelage types in these polymorphic species.
Kwiamfiik: The Feather-tailed Possum (Distoechurus pennatus).
Kiinfiik, kiinfeik: The Pygmy Ringtail (Pseudochirulus mayeri).
Ngarfem, ngarfemnok, fiok: A generic-inclusive covering the Striped Possum (Dactylopsila trivirgata), the Long-fingered Triok (D. palpator), and the Great-tailed Triok (D. megalura). Captured live pouch young of D. trivirgata were seen in the field.
Dubol: Doria's Tree Kangaroo (Dendrolagus dorianus). A captured live specimen was seen in Tabubil and identified by Seltaman.
Akhuniok, akhuni, a'uni: Goodfellow's Tree Kangaroo (D. goodfellowi), and possibly also the Lowland Tree Kangaroo (D. spadix). Captured live specimens of Goodfellow's in Tabubil were seen and identified by Seltaman.
Watom: The regionally common Small Dorcopsis ("wallaby"), in all likelihood Dorcopsulus vanheurni.
Sumoliim: All agreed that this name applies to a particularly large kind of watom (wallaby type). Informants disagreed over whether there are any sumoliim in Seltaman territory, most thinking not. The Dusky Pademelon (Thylogale brunii) is a candidate.
Waar, waariim: Described by Seltaman as a smaller and higher elevation version of the Striped Bandicoot (Microperoryctes longicauda). It may thus be the Striped Bandicoot as higher elevation specimens of many New Guinea species are smaller. Flannery's second edition suggests an alternative, Microperoyctes papuensis, which looks like a miniaturized M. longicauda. However, papuensis is not reported for the Mountain Ok area.
Kayuuk, nuk senok: The Striped Bandicoot (Microperoryctes longicauda).
Kimisok, dein: Raffray's Bandicoot (Peroryctes raffrayana). It is possible that the small females of this species are sometimes glossed as bakhonkaak or as nuk senok. A killed specimen was seen in the field.
Wok ngerewaak (Angkayak variant, wok gerewaal): A large male Echymipera type, unidentified.
Bakhonkaak, kayaar: Sight identifications and one jaw specimen make this the Common Echymipera (Echymipera kalubu) (Menzies, pers. comm., 1996). Very small bakhonkaak may be called bakhonkaak senok but are distinguished from true nuk senok by a shorter tail. Another term for the small ones is man am. Several killed specimens were seen in the field.
Mein or el dakhon: A tree-climbing, fast Giant Rat fitting the description of the Rothschild's Woolly Rat (Mallomys rothschildi). El dakhon means "high" dakhon.
Ki dakhon: Ki, or "ground-staying," dakhon is very likely the De Vis's Woolly Rat (Mallomys aroaensis), which is often lumped by Western naturalists with the closely similar M. rothschildi.
Farenki, farenkiok: An alternate generic-inclusive for the mein and dakhon class of Giant Rat.
Kuter: Perhaps more than one species: a mid-size brown, sharp toothed rat with a fondness for pandanus (nut or oil pandanus). Kuter are found at all elevations, according to Seltaman. Pictures of both the Black-tailed Giant Rat (Uromys anak), which Telefomin call kutel, and the Uneven-toothed Rat (Anisomys imitator) drew kuter responses. The undepicted Mottle-tailed Giant Rat (Uromys caudimaculatus), which Miyanmin call quaterip also fits the kuter portrait.
Wares: One jaw specimen was identified as the Uneven-toothed Rat (Anisomys imitator) (Menzies, pers. comm., 1996). Described as on the small side for a Giant Rat type, brown with a white tail end. It dwells at somewhat higher elevations than Seltaman villages and stays on the ground. Not known to specialize in pandanus, though it may eat it.
Somin, som: One skull specimen was identified by James Menzies as Hyomis goliath (Menzies, pers. comm., 1996). Flannery now splits goliath into two species: Hyomis dammermani in the West and Hyomis goliath in the East. The location of the Seltaman range makes their version likely to be the new "dammermani." This is the only Giant Rat that is a regular and virulent garden invader, according to the Seltaman, and the only other nuk type besides the village rat, senokiok, that is an enthusiastic consumer of raw native taro. The Woktembip Seltaman abandoned "cold-place" (native) taro for a number of years because of the ravages of somin to their gardens. Somin is described as being large, black, and terrestrial. The flesh is very succulent.
Yakheil: The Long-beaked Echidna (Zaglossus bruijni). A killed specimen was seen in the field.
Aboyim, aboysep: Any carnivorous nuk but preeminently the New Guinea Quoll (Dasyurus albopunctatus). A killed specimen was seen in the field.
Akheim, akheimnok: Any water dwelling nuk, with the Common Water Rat (Hydromys chrysogaster) and the Earless Water Rat (Crossomys moncktoni) being likeliest.
Mituum fasiin, kaipmitmitok, fun-fun: The Waterside Rat (Parahydromys asper); possibly one other rat type.
Bilbiliok: A generic-inclusive term for water rats.
Fapkoyok, fapkiok: Any glider but most likely the Sugar Glider (Petaurus breviceps).
Et, komei: Any small tree mouse, melomys, pogonomys, or pogonomelomys that nests in ground burrows, especially around gardens. Among those nominated by Seltaman, the likeliest local candidates are the Chestnut Tree Mouse (Pogonomys macrourus), the Grey-bellied Tree Mouse (P. sylvestris), the Large Tree Mouse (P. loriae), the Mountain Melomys (Melomys rubex), and Ruemmler's Pogonomelomys ("Pogonomelomys" reummleri).
Ibiok: Like et/komei, ibiok is a melomys or pogonomys (small tree rodent) type. Some Seltaman consider ibiok simply an alternate name for the et class of creature, but others insist it is not an et, merely similar.
Iram, el iram, nuk em, brusek: Because this variously named small tree rodent is an important and highly secret sacrifice in cult ritual, we struggled to find a good candidate in the book. It was determined that there are two or more types of iram, just as there are a variety of et. All are distinguished from et by being true bush creatures, not likely to be found in and around disturbed areas. Of the various iram, one type (or one type in the Seltaman view) habitually nests in high tree holes and is called el iram ("high iram"). This is the one sought for ritual. The candidates, selected spontaneously from the pictures, were all candidates for et or ibiok as well. These were Chestnut Tree Mouse (Pogonomys macrourus), Large Tree Mouse (P. loriae), and Lesser Tree Mouse (Chiruromys vates). Menzies points out that of these Chiruromys vates seems to be the one most associated with tree holes (pers. comm. 1993).
Aberok: The Long-tailed Pygmy Possum (Cercartetus caudatus) is the best candidate. Aberok is a tiny creature distinguished by its fondness for nesting in the holes of old tree ferns (aber).
Kukhun: Sight identification and one skull specimen make this the Short-furred Dasyure (Murexia longicaudata) (Menzies, pers. comm., 1996). This taxon is described as a "mainly hot-place" small marsupial with large protruding ears and a tail rather like a rat. It is said to sleep in "tree houses" and to eat fruit. It may enter a bush house, but never a village house, at night looking for food. While M. longicaudata has the teeth of a predator, Seltaman deny that kukhun is predatory.
Takhein: El takhein and kir takhein are described as two similar smallish creatures, not of the tree rodent type. Both are high elevation dwellers. One is smaller and is found up in trees (el takhein), while the larger one (kir takhein) "stays on the ground." These may be Antechinus or Dasyure species.
Ubil, ubaar, uwaar: Any small tree rodent or melomys that makes nests in the fronds of pandanus. A candidate is Shaw Mayer's Pogonomelomys (Pogonomelomys mayeri).
Bamnain: Name offered by one Seltaman man and one Angkayak woman for the Black-tailed Antechinus (Antechinus melanurus).
Batukin, kiminkarom: Names for hydromine(s).
Senokiok, senok: The village- and garden-invading rat of the area, which appears to be Rattus steini. Many killed specimens seen in the field.